The Mughal era in India has become a topic of intense debate, with contrasting views presented by different factions. The significant section people has sought to reshape the narrative, portraying it as a dark period in Indian history, while established historians emphasize the glory of the Great Mughals. The prevailing historical education in Indian schools often portrayed the Mughals as empire builders who expanded their territory, constructed iconic landmarks like the Lal Quila and the Taj Mahal, and played a significant role in shaping the map of united India under British rule. However, a deeper examination of the era and a comparison with concurrent developments in Europe reveal some intriguing insights.
Europe’s Scientific Revolution
While the Mughals were ruling large parts of India from 1526 to 1757, Europe was undergoing a transformative phase. The Renaissance, Scientific Revolution, and Enlightenment were reshaping the continent and leading to unprecedented advancements in the natural sciences, technology, political thought, and philosophy. Europe witnessed a series of groundbreaking inventions and scientific discoveries that revolutionized various fields.
- Heliocentric Model: In the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus proposed the heliocentric model of the solar system, challenging the prevailing geocentric view and laying the foundation for modern astronomy.
- Microscope: The invention of the microscope in the late 16th century by Dutch scientist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek allowed for the observation of tiny organisms and structures previously invisible to the naked eye, paving the way for the field of microbiology.
- Telescope: The Dutch mathematician and astronomer Hans Lippershey is credited with the invention of the telescope in 1609. Italian physicist and astronomer Galileo became the first person to point a telescope skyward, enabling detailed exploration of celestial bodies.
- Blood Circulation: English physician William Harvey published his groundbreaking work “De Motu Cordis” (On the Motion of the Heart) in 1628, describing the circulation of blood throughout the body and revolutionizing our understanding of the cardiovascular system.
- Barometer: In 1643, Evangelista Torricelli invented the barometer, a device used to measure atmospheric pressure. It played a crucial role in meteorology, leading to advancements in weather prediction.
- Steam Pump: Thomas Savery developed the steam pump, or atmospheric engine, in 1698. This early steam-powered device utilized steam pressure to pump water and laid the foundation for more advanced steam technology.
- Quinine for Malaria Treatment: During the 17th century, the medicinal properties of quinine, derived from the bark of the Cinchona tree, were recognized for their effectiveness against malaria. The discovery of quinine had a profound impact on public health and the treatment of this widespread disease.
- Calculus: Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz independently developed calculus in the late 17th century. This branch of mathematics provided a framework for understanding continuous change and made significant contributions to physics, engineering, and mathematics.
- Mercury Thermometer: The Polish-German physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit is credited with inventing the mercury thermometer in 1714, which greatly advanced temperature measurement and had applications in scientific research and medical diagnostics.
A Comparative Analysis
The question arises: why did the Great Mughals, despite ruling vast empires with relatively stable governance, fail to match the scientific advancements witnessed in small European nation-states during the same period?
Religious and Social Factors
Sociologist Max Weber’s theory offers some insights into the lack of scientific progress in India during the Mughal era. Weber argued that the underlying religious and social framework in India did not foster the rational, systematic thinking required for scientific innovation and technological advancement, unlike the conditions prevailing in Europe.
Weber postulated that the Protestant ethic, particularly in its Calvinist form, encouraged a type of rationality conducive to the development of capitalism. The Calvinist belief in predestination led to the idea that worldly success could indicate one’s salvation in the afterlife. This belief system resulted in an asceticism directed towards economic activity, where work became a duty and accumulating wealth was seen as a sign of God’s favor. However, this wealth was not to be used for hedonistic purposes.
In contrast, Weber argued that Indian religions, especially Hinduism, did not foster the same asceticism towards economic activity. Hindu society was stratified into various castes, each defined by birth and assigned specific duties (dharma). This caste system did not encourage economic ambition or social mobility, both of which are integral to capitalism. Additionally, Hindu beliefs, such as the law of karma and the cycle of rebirth, did not incentivize the rational economic activity required for capitalism. The focus was on fulfilling one’s caste duties and attaining spiritual liberation (moksha) through renunciation of the world, which did not involve economic prosperity or material wealth.
The Structure of the Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire had a different structure from Europe during this period. It was a centralized empire with strong monarchical rule, while Europe was fragmented into many smaller states, often in competition with one another. This competition drove scientific and technological innovation as each state sought to gain an edge over its rivals. The Mughals, on the other hand, invested significant resources in military expansions, which may have hindered the development of a middle class—a crucial driver of scientific progress.
Furthermore, the Mughal Empire’s method of collecting land revenue, often through harsh and brutal means, might have contributed to the absence of a middle class and, subsequently, a setback in scientific progress. The focus of the Mughals was primarily on building lavish palaces, forts, and tombs for themselves rather than on constructing infrastructure like roads to facilitate trade and scientific exchange.
Technological Transfers and Cultural Exchanges
Europe greatly benefited from a series of technological transfers both within the continent and from other cultures, including China and the Islamic world. These transfers significantly contributed to Europe’s scientific advancement. However, the Mughals did not provide the same level of progress and failed to foster a culture of scientific enquiry and technological exchange.
Conclusion
The Mughal era in India remains a subject of intense debate and contrasting viewpoints. However, when examining the concurrent developments in Europe during the Mughal rule, it becomes evident that Europe experienced a scientific revolution and unprecedented advancements in various fields.
The lack of scientific progress in India during the Mughal era can be attributed to a combination of religious, social, and structural factors. Weber’s theory sheds light on the underlying framework in India that did not encourage the rational, systematic thinking necessary for scientific innovation. The centralized structure of the Mughal Empire and the absence of a competitive environment hindered scientific and technological advancements. Additionally, Europe’s exposure to technological transfers and cultural exchanges played a significant role in their scientific progress.
While the Mughal Empire left a lasting legacy in terms of art, architecture, and cultural richness, it did not witness a comparable scientific revolution. Understanding the factors that contributed to this disparity can help us appreciate the complexities of history and the diverse factors that shape the course of scientific and intellectual development in different societies.